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Achilles Tendon Sports Injuries
A Review of Classification and Treatment
Achilles tendon injuries are among the three most frequent sports-related injuries of the foot and ankle. Proper function of the Achilles tendon is critical to performance in sports. A thorough knowledge of the anatomy and biomechanical function of this tendon is essential to the effective treatment of these injuries. Distinguishing among the various pathologies of the Achilles tendon is an important first step toward successful treatment and return of the athlete to sports activity. The term Achilles tendinitis is a nonspecific diagnosis that does not accurately describe an actual injury. This review is intended to provide the sports medicine physician with a means of classifying Achilles tendon injuries and, thus, arriving at an accurate diagnosis and treatment plan. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 97(1): 37–48, 2007)
The Percutaneous Surgical Approach for Repairing Acute Achilles Tendon Rupture
A Comprehensive Outcome Assessment
Background: Treatment modalities for acute Achilles tendon rupture can be divided into operative and nonoperative. The main concern with nonoperative treatment is the high incidence of repeated ruptures; operative treatment is associated with risk of infection, sural nerve injury, and wound-healing sequelae. We assessed our experience with a percutaneous operative approach for treating acute Achilles tendon rupture.
Methods: The outcomes of percutaneous surgery in 29 patients (25 men; age range, 24–58 years) who underwent percutaneous surgery for Achilles tendon rupture between 1997 and 2004 were retrospectively evaluated. Their demographic data, subjective and objective evaluation findings, and isokinetic evaluation results were retrieved, and they were assessed with the modified Boyden score and the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale.
Results: All 29 patients demonstrated good functional outcome, with no- to mild-limitations in recreational activities and high patient satisfaction. Mean follow-up was 31.8 months. Changes in ankle range of motion in the operated leg were minimal. Strength and power testing revealed a significant difference at 90°/sec for plantarflexion power between the injured and healthy legs but no difference at 30° and 240°/sec or in dorsiflexion. The mean modified Boyden score was 74.3, and the mean Ankle-Hindfoot Scale score was 94.5.
Conclusions: Percutaneous surgery for Achilles tendon rupture is easily executed and has excellent functional results and low complication rates. It is an appealing alternative to either nonoperative or open surgery treatments. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 100(4): 270–275, 2010)
Background
The purpose of this study was to report the management and outcomes of ten patients with chronic Achilles tendon rupture treated with a turndown gastrocnemius-soleus fascial flap wrapped with a surgical mesh (Hyalonect).
Methods
Ten men with neglected Achilles tendon rupture were treated with a centrally based turndown gastrocnemius fascial flap wrapped with Hyalonect. Hyalonect is a knitted mesh composed of HYAFF, a benzyl ester of hyaluronic acid. The Achilles tendon ruptures were diagnosed more than 1 month after injury. The mean patient age was 41 years. All of the patients had weakness of active plantarflexion. The mean preoperative American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score was 64.8.
Results
The functional outcome was excellent. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score was 97.8 at the latest follow-up. There were significant differences between the preoperative and postoperative scores. Ankle range of motion was similar in both ankles. Neither rerupture nor major complication, particularly of wound healing, was observed.
Conclusions
For patients with chronic Achilles tendon rupture with a rupture gap of at least 5 cm, surgical repair using a single turndown fascial flap covered with Hyalonect achieved excellent outcomes.
Wound Complications from Surgeries Pertaining to the Achilles Tendon
An Analysis of 219 Surgeries
Background: A retrospective review of one surgeon’s practice was conducted to assess the prevalence of wound complications associated with acute and chronic rupture repair, peritenolysis, tenodesis, debridement, retrocalcaneal exostectomy/bursectomy, and management of calcific tendinopathy of the Achilles tendon.
Methods: We evaluated the incidence of infection and other wound complications, such as suture reactions, scar revision, hematoma, incisional neuromas, and granuloma formation.
Results: A total of 219 surgical cases were available for review (140 males and 70 females; mean ± SD age at the time of surgery, 46.5 ± 12.6 years; age range, 16–75 years). Seven patients experienced a wound infection, three had keloid formation, six had suture granulomas, and six had suture abscesses, for a total complication rate of 10.0%. Six patients had more than one complication; therefore, the percentage of patients with complications was 7.3%. There were no hematomas. Seven patients had additional surgery after their wound complications; some had simple granuloma excision, and one necessitated a flap. Patients with risk factors such as diabetes mellitus, smoking, and rheumatoid arthritis necessitating corticosteroid therapy were more likely to have a wound complication (Fisher exact test, P = .03).
Conclusions: Complications with Achilles tendon surgery may be unavoidable. Suture granulomas may appear in a delayed manner. Absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures can be implicated. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 98(2): 95–101, 2008)
Background: Various techniques may be used to repair Achilles tendon ruptures; however, we contend that using the strongest suture with the least amount of suture material is ideal.
Methods: To compare the strength of 2-0 FiberLoop (Arthrex Inc, Naples, Florida) and #2 Ethibond (Ethicon Inc, Somerville, New Jersey) suture materials in Achilles tendon repairs, 12 Achilles tendons were harvested from cadavers aged 18 to 62 years (median age, 42 years). The tendons were transected and repaired using a modified Krackow suture technique. All of the right limbs were repaired with 2-0 FiberLoop, and the contralateral side was repaired with #2 Ethibond. The specimens were mounted to a materials testing system, and the repairs were pulled to failure in an anatomical direction.
Results: The mean ± SD yield loads of 2-0 FiberLoop and #2 Ethibond were 233 ± 48 N and 134 ± 34 N, respectively (P = .002). The mean ± SD ultimate load of 2-0 FiberLoop was 282 ± 58 N, and that of #2 Ethibond was 135 ± 33 N (P < .001). The cross-sectional area of one pass of 2-0 FiberLoop was calculated to be 0.21 mm2, and one pass of #2 Ethibond was 0.28 mm2.
Conclusions: The smaller-caliber 2-0 FiberLoop was significantly stronger than #2 Ethibond. This study suggests that there is no advantage to using the traditional larger suture material for Achilles tendon repairs; however, further clinical testing is needed to determine the optimal repair technique. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 100(3): 185–188, 2010)
Background
In the presence of a large gap where end-to-end repair of the torn Achilles tendon is difficult and V-Y advancement would likely be insufficient, augmentation is sometimes required. At our institute we have used primarily the hamstring autograft augmentation technique for the past two decades. The aim of this study was to analyze the complications after surgical treatment of Achilles tendon rupture with semitendinous tendon augmentation.
Methods
We retrospectively analyzed 58 consecutive patients treated with semitendinous tendon autograft augmentation at the Helsinki University Hospital between January 1, 2006, and January 1, 2016.
Results
During the study period, 58 patients were operated on by six different surgeons. Of 14 observed complications (24%), seven were major and seven were minor. Most of the complications were infections (n = 10 [71%]) The infections were noted within a mean of 62 days postoperatively (range, 22–180 days). Seven patients with a complication underwent repeated operation because of skin edge necrosis and deep infection (five patients), hematoma formation (one patient), and a repeated rupture (one patient).
Conclusions
In light of the experience we have had with autologous semitendinous tendon graft augmentation, we cannot recommend this technique, and, hence, we should abandon reconstruction of Achilles tendon ruptures with autologous semitendinous tendon grafts at our institute. Instead, other augmentation techniques, such as flexor hallucis longus tendon transfer, should be used.
The Achilles tendon of the patient with Charcot’s foot neuroarthropathy has significantly altered physical properties compared with a normal tendon. Twenty-nine Achilles tendons from patients with Charcot’s foot (n = 20) and non-Charcot’s foot controls (n = 9) were loaded onto a biomechanical testing instrument. The biomechanical properties of the Charcot and control tendons were determined and the tendons were evaluated for differences in ultimate tensile strength and elasticity (Young’s modulus). Biomechanical test data show that there is a significant difference in ultimate tensile strength and elasticity between tendons of patients with Charcot’s foot and those of non-Charcot’s controls. The term diabetic tendo Achillis equinus is introduced as a new finding in diabetic neuroarthropathy. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 95(3): 242–246, 2005)
Background:
Surgical or nonsurgical treatment of an Achilles tendon rupture includes a period of immobilization that is a well-documented risk factor for deep venous thrombosis (DVT). The DVT is a source of morbidity in orthopedic surgery because it can progress to pulmonary embolism. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of DVT and pulmonary embolism after surgical treatment of an Achilles tendon rupture.
Methods:
A retrospective analysis was made of patients who underwent surgical treatment of Achilles tendon rupture between January 1, 2006, and November 30, 2014. Patient data were collected from the hospital medical record system.
Results:
Of 238 patients with a mean age of 39 years (range, 18–66 years), 18 (7.6%) were diagnosed as having symptomatic DVT. The average body mass index of the patients with DVT was 31.8 (range, 24–33). Of the patients with DVT, 11 were older than 40 years and two-thirds had a body mass index of 30 or greater. Pulmonary embolism was diagnosed in four patients (1.7%), none of whom had DVT symptoms.
Conclusions:
Venous thrombosis continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in postoperative patients. Limited data are available for the use of thromboprophylaxis in foot and ankle surgery. In light of the literature review and results of this study, we suggest that routine thromboembolism prophylaxis should be considered for patients with Achilles tendon rupture.
Background:
Metabolic disorders are known to alter the mechanical properties of tendons. We sought to evaluate the prevalence of asymptomatic Achilles tendon enthesopathic changes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) without peripheral neuropathy.
Methods:
We recruited 43 patients with T2DM and 40 controls. Neuropathy was excluded with the Michigan Neuropathy Scoring Instrument. Bilateral ultrasonography of the Achilles tendon enthesis was performed.
Results:
Patients with T2DM had a higher prevalence of hypoechogenicity (26.7% versus 2.5%; P = .0001), entheseal thickening (24.4% versus 8.7%; P = .007), and enthesophytes (74.4% versus 57.5%; P = .02). No differences were found in the number of patients with erosions (1.2% versus 0%; P > .99), cortical irregularities (11.6% versus 3.7%; P = .09), bursitis (5.8% versus 3.7%; P = .72), or tears (2.3% versus 1.2%; P > .99). The mean ± SD sum of abnormalities was higher in patients with T2DM (1.5 ± 1.1 versus 0.7 ± 0.6; P < .0001), as was the percentage of bilateral involvement (72.1% versus 45.0%; P = .01). Mean ± SD thickness did not differ between patients and controls (4.4 ± 1.1 mm versus 4.2 ± 0.8 mm; P = .07).
Conclusions:
According to our data, there is an elevated prevalence of asymptomatic Achilles tendon enthesopathic changes in patients with T2DM independent of peripheral neuropathy.
Background: Assessing implanted biological reinforcement graft success in soft-tissue repairs is typically limited to noninvasive measurements and functional outcome measures. However, there are times when a histologic snapshot of the graft incorporation may be possible owing to a nongraft-related postoperative complication, such as hardware failure.
Methods: We histologically evaluated a 6-month biopsy sample from an Achilles tendon repair augmented with an acellular human dermal matrix (AHDM). A 57-year-old woman was treated for Haglund’s deformity of the Achilles tendon. The Achilles tendon was fixed to the calcaneus using a plate, and an AHDM was used to augment the primary repair of the tendon. At 6 months, the hardware was removed owing to prominence, and a biopsy of the AHDM was performed. The specimen was prepared and stained using hematoxylin and eosin, Verhoeff-van Gieson, Movat’s pentachrome, and toluidine blue stains.
Results: Visually, the graft appeared normal and incorporated with the native tendon. No repeated tear was observed, and results of tests for infection were negative. Histologically, the graft was infiltrated predominantly with fibroblasts and demonstrated numerous blood vessels. Positive proteoglycan staining in the AHDM and at sites of vascularity indicated probable transformation to tendon-like tissue.
Conclusions: These histologic findings suggest that the AHDM is highly biocompatible, supports revascularization and repopulation with noninflammatory host cells, and becomes incorporated by surrounding tendon tissue. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 99(2): 104–107, 2009)
